1. Introduction

1.1. Research Background

With the rapid development of information technology, discourse is becoming an important means in shaping various fields of social life. Acting as an access for knowledge and information for the public, it also influences public opinion and ideology because the public tends to easily accept it with no doubt or hesitation.

Newspapers and their affiliated news agencies declare their independence of government influence and their guiding principles of objectivity. Their stands, however, can never escape some preference because these agencies of news reporting are living in a given economic, political and social background. Such a setting called for its research and teaching in England in the late 1970s and early 1980s, aiming at exposing the ideological meanings of the discourses and looking into the social origins of their influence on our society.

Recently, the escalating Sino-Japanese disputes over the Diaoyu Islands, cause widespread concern in the world. In April 2012, a fresh row ensued after outspoken Tokyo Governor Shintaro Ishihara claimed he would use public fund to buy the islands from their claimed private owner. In August of this year, a group of Chinese sailed to the islands from Hong Kong, with seven landing on one island. All were detained by Japanese coast guards and later sent back. Several days later, at least 10 Japanese nationalist activists also landed on the islands with flags. Tensions continued to rise and in early September, two men were detained in Beijing for ripping the flag off the Japanese ambassador’s car in late August, in an apparent protest over the islands. Following that, the Japanese government reached a deal to buy the disputed islands from their claimed private owner. On 11 September, China sent two patrol ships to waters near the island as Japan signed the purchase contract. The news selected for this thesis is on the latest confrontation after Japanese decision to buy the islands.

The thesis selects two news reports on Sino-Japan dispute over Diaoyu Islands from China Daily and The Washington Post for data analysis, adopting critical discourse analysis and Halliday’s systemic-functional linguistics as the main theory and methodology, with a comparative analysis to explore the hidden ideologies in mass media discourses and their influences on readers’ cognition. Though the news seems to be objective, through analysis it can be found the hidden ideology in both.

1.2 Significance of the research

We acquire our knowledge about the world by one of the the mass media-newspaper, which is invariably influenced by different forces in our society, so it is naive to think that they provide us with objective representation of the social events around us. We simply have to read between lines.

By conducting a critical discourse analysis of news reports concerning Sino-Japanese dispute over the Diaoyu Islands by China Daily and The Washington Post, the present study aims to uncover the subtle and underlying relation between language and ideology so that readers of newspaper can develop both a practical linguistic skill and a political awareness. This paper aims to facilitate the readers’ to be sensitive and critical in reading public discourses.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The concept and development of CDA

Critical Discourse Analysis, which is also called Critical Linguistics, is a relatively recent school of discourse analysis that concerns itself with relations of power and inequality in language. It explicitly intends to incorporate social-theoretical insights into discourse analysis and advocates social commitment and interventionism in research. It aims to explore hidden power relations between discourse and wider social and cultural formations and to uncover inequality, power relationships, ideologies, injustices, discrimination, bias etc[1]. CDA is used to inspect ideology meanings in language structures and uncover the complicated relationships between language, power, and ideology by analyzing language features and their historical background[2].

The origin of Critical Discourse Analysis can be dated back to the tradition of the literary criticism which focused on the language of literature discourse for research in the 20th century[3]. It witnessed Britain’s Practical Criticism, America’s New Criticism and France’s Structuralism, giving up past method of simply studying the critics’ emotions, intentions aesthetic features and value judgements, but stressed on the pragmatic aspect of the literature: linguistic criticism. Regarding literary texts and non-literary texts as the same way of discourses expanded the view of the linguistic criticism. Then, critical linguistics or critical discourse analysis was ultimately formed in eighties and nineties[4].

The term critical linguistics itself was first used by Fowler in the work titled Language and Control published in 1979. However, it is Fairclough who puts forward

the conception of critical discourse analysis (CDA) in Language and Power in 1989. Two of the most important masterpiece of CDA is Langarage and Power by Fairclough and Wodak’s Language, Power and Ideology. In 1970s, a group of linguists headed by Roger Fowler in Britain developed a critical linguistics method by integrating methods of text analysis of systemic linguistics of Halliday with the theory of sociology. They typically select those potentially ideological linguistic features involving such categories as transitivity, modality, transformation, classification etc. They analyze language in various situation including news reporting, interviews, rules and regulations and so on[5]. Their work is ground-breaking in that it is them who first correlate and study the relationships between ideologies, power relation and language use.

2.2. Crucial notions in CDA s

In order to help readers understand the theories of CDA well, some key concepts in CDA, such as discourse and ideology will be briefly explained in this part.

2.2.1. Discourse

An important concept that people encounter in critical linguistics is discourse. Different scholars have different understandings of the term discourse. According to Deborah Schiffrin[6], discourse analysis is a vast and ambiguous field.“ Fairclough claims „In using the term „discourse“, I am proposing to regard language use as a form of social practice, rather than a purely individual activity or a reflex of situational variables[7]. In the case of discourses analysis, ideologies are usually brought to discourses not as explicit elements of the text but as the background assumptions which on the one hand lead the text producer to represent the world in a particular way and on the other hand lead the interpreter to interpret the text in a particular way.

2.2.2. Ideology

Once hearing the term of ideology, many people will insticctively relate it to beliefs. However, in critical linguistics, ideology is a more neutralized term which relates to how we say, think and interact with society. From the perspective of CDA, there is no use of language that could be thoroughly objective or ideology-free. Fairclough claims „I shall understand ideologies to be significations/constructions of reality, which are built into various dimensions of the forms/meanings of discursive practices, and which contribute to the production, reproduction or transformation of relations of domination.[8]“ On the one hand, discourse helps to establish or maintain power relations or group interests; On the other hand, ideologies influence the linguistic features in our discourses, which enables the necessity of critical discourse analysis.

2.3. Fairclough’s three-dimensional model of CDA

Actually, CDA does not have a fixed theoretical framework, for it is based on many other well-established approaches. Though each of the approaches has its own merits and demerits, Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework is widely acknowledged and adopted. Norman Fairclough illustrates a three-dimensional framework for discourse studies in Discourse and social change, the three-dimensional conception of discourse is to map three separate forms of analysis onto one another: namely, analysis of (spoken or written) language texts, analysis of discursive practice (processes of text production, distribution and consumption) and analysis of social practice[9]. Correspondingly, while doing CDA, the researchers should include textual analysis, discursive practices and social practices.

3. Theories applied in Critical Discourse Analysis

3.1. Three functions in Halliday’s systemic-functional grammar

Being regarded as one of the most extensively employed methodology for critical discourse studies, Fairclough’s three-dimensional model has its roots in Halliday’s systemic-functional grammar. Systemic- functional plays a crucial role in the critical studies of discourse and it is considered as the most important theoretical source of CDA. The methodologies and the analytical framework of CDA are all developed from Systemic-Functional Grammar. In Systemic-Functional, according to Halliday[10] he summarizes three metafunctions of language: the ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function. The grammar-that is, the description of the specific matches of function and wording-reflects this three-strand approach, in that it consists of three components, each corresponding to one of the matafunctions[11].

3.1.1. Ideational function

People can use language to communicate with people and language can also be used to talk about the world---all the things in the world, such as the objects, thoughts, etc. This is referred as the first metafunctions--- the ideational function. Ideation focuses on the „content“ of a discourse: what kinds of activities are undertaken, and how participants in these activities are described, how they are classified and what they are composed of. J. R[12]. The ideational function means language serves for the expression of content, that is to say, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including inner world of his own consciousness.

In Halliday’s systemic-functional grammar, transitivity and lexical classification are major determinants of ideational structure. Transitivity is a semantic system of ideational function. The meaning of Halliday’s ‘transitivity’ differs from the sense of the meaning in traditional grammar. It doesn’t depend on whether they take an object or not. Here, transitivity refers to how meaning is represented in clause and it demonstrates how language users encode their mental pictures of reality, and how account for their experience of what goes on around them and inside them. According to Halliday, people can divide their experience into six different processes through transitivity: (1) material process; (2) mental process; (3) relational process; (4) behavioral process; (5) verbal process; (6) existential process[13]. Material process is the process of doing.Mental process is a process of sensing .Relational process is the process of being.Behavioral process is the process of physiological and psychological behavior, like breathing, dreaming, smiling, coughing Halliday[14]. Verbal process is the process of saying, as in what did you say. I said it’s noisy in here. But ‘saying’ has to be interpreted in a rather broad sense; it covers any kind of symbolic exchange of meaning .Existential process represents that something exists or happens, as in there was a little guinea-pig, there seems to be a problem, has there been a phone call[15]. In a word, transitivity is the bridge between language and world.

Writers or speakers have their choice of different words to express themselves and their wording reflect their different ideologies. Therefore a useful approach to avoid being misled in political news reports is examining the classification of a discourse.

3.1.2. Interpersonal function

In the interpersonal function, language is used to communicate with other people and then to establish appropriate social relationships with them and maintain it. During this process, language may influence other people’s beliefs or view of the world.

There are two main representations of the interpersonal function. One is mood, and the other one is modality. Mood expresses the roles that the addresser assigns to oneself and the addressees respectively in the speech situation. Modality refers to a speaker’s or writer’s a comment about or attitude towards the truth of a proposition expressed by a sentence. The only kind of modality recognized in traditional modal logic is that which has to do with the notions of necessity and propositions: aletheutic, or alethic, modality[16]. Modal auxiliary and many other linguistic features such as modal adjuncts, modal adverbs play the role of realizing modality.

3.1.3. Textual function

The textual function means that language needs to offer links with itself and with characteristics of the wider situation in which it is used. That is to say, the textual function is concerned with the appropriate organization of the messages. Theme is one of the most important notions in the textual aspect, which is the initial part of the clause, and the rest of it being referred to as Rheme. The theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of the message; it is that which locates and orients the clause with its contexts. The remainder of the message, the part in which the theme is developed, is called in Prague school terminology the Rheme[17]. The textual function is mainly realized through thematic choice.

The first two metafunctions of language depend on the textual function, which makes the other two be realized, and guarantees that the language used is relevant. These functions are realized in language use by transitivity structure, mood and modality structure, theme structure respectively. This thesis will adopt transitivity system, lexical classification and modality as the linguistic analytic tools for CDA.

3.2. CDA and Halliday’s Systemic-Functional Grammar

CDA is closely related to Halliday’s Systemic-Functional Grammar in the following three aspects: Firstly, both of them deem language to be a social practice and social intervening force; Secondly, they both regard language to be multi-functional and they examine relations between language and ideologies from different perspectives; Thirdly, they both think language to be a semantically interlocking optional system or network. Because of these similarity, they are commonly used in critical linguistics.

4. Data collection and analysis

4.1. Data collection

The data of the thesis is chosen from China Daily and The Washington Post, with each news reports respectively selected from each newspaper. Five reasons account for our choice of these two papers for our comparative analysis. First, both of them are highly prestigious and a wide circulation and hence its influence; Secondly, on their official websites are ready and accessible data; Thirdly, both of them have a wide coverage of social events; Fourthly, readers of them are mainly elite with sound education and discernment; and lastly, China and the U.S are the two powers which are directly or indirectly related to the event.

4.2. Analysis of selected news reports on Diaoyu Islands

4.2.1. The background of Diaoyu Islands Issue

The eight uninhabited islands and rocks in question are lying in the East China Sea. They have a total area of about seven square kilometers and lie northeast of Taiwan, east of the Chinese mainland and southwest of Okinawa. The islands and Taiwan itself were ceded to Japan by the Manchu emperor in 1895. After Japan’s defeat in World War II, Taiwan was returned to the Kuomintang government, but the islands were not returned. In 1996, a Japanese group established a lighthouse on one of the islands. Chinese activists then sailed repeatedly to the islands and in one incident, Hong Kong activist David Chan jumped into the sea and drowned. Since then, there have been periodic attempts by Chinese and Taiwanese activists to sail to the islands.

In 2004, Japan arrested seven Chinese activists who landed on the main island. There have also been face-offs between Japanese patrol boats and Chinese or Taiwanese fishing vessels. In 2005, 50 Taiwanese fishing boats staged a protest in the area, complaining of harassment by Japanese patrols. In September 2010, Japan seized a Chinese trawler that collided with two coast guard vessels near to the islands, sparking a serious diplomatic row. Small anti-Japanese protests were held in several cities in China. A visit by 1,000 Japanese students to the Shanghai Expo and a concert by a top Japanese band were also canceled. In the end, Japan released the entire crew of the trawler - first the 14-member crew and then the captain, several days later. In April 2012, a fresh row ensued after outspoken Tokyo Governor Shintaro Ishihara claimed he would use public fund to buy the islands from the current private owner. In August of this year, a group of Chinese sailed to the islands from Hong Kong, with seven landing on one island. All were detained by Japanese coast guards and later sent back. Several days later, at least 10 Japanese nationalist activists also landed on the islands with flags.

Tensions continued to rise and in early September, two men were detained in Beijing for ripping the flag off the Japanese ambassador’s car in late August, in an apparent protest over the islands. Following that, the Japanese government reached a deal to buy the disputed islands from their claimed private owner. On 11 September, China sent two patrol ships to waters near the island as Japan signed the purchase contract. The selected news is on the latest confrontation after Japanese decision to buy the islands.

4.2.2. Transitivity

Transitivity is a semantic system, which divides what people see and hear in real life into several process[18]. The author analyzes this news report on China-Japan conflict by virtue of the functional model of CDA. The analysis of this news report reveals the standpoint of American press towards China, Japan and the conflict between the two countries. Following figures are about the distribution of the process types appearing in this news report.

Table 1 percentage of each process type in the samples

Process type	Material	Mental	Relational	Verbal	Behavioral	Existential
Number	43	0	7	27	0	0
Percentage(%)	55.84	0	9.1	35.06	0	0
Total	77

CDA Perspective on News Reports – 9

 
Table 1 shows the frequency of each process type. The dominant process type is material process, accounting for 55.84%, which is accordance with the news that provides the latest account of the events in the world. Verbal process takes a big proportion too, 35.06%. Relational process ranks as the third, 9.1%.Mental process, existential process and behavioral process is not used in the samples.

Since material process and verbal process take up the great majority, the two will be analyzed in turn.

(i) Material Process

Halliday defines material process is the process of doing[19]. In other word, the material processes present what happens, who does what kind of things to something or somebody else. To be specific, the material processes present what happens, what changes, who does what kind of things to something or somebody else. Material processes often have the highest frequency in news reports because they function to represent the happenings in people’s surroundings. Material processes are predominantly used in the samples, taking up 55.84%. In the samples, many detailed events on the islands are recorded. Let’s first look at some examples of material process:
(1) More than 40 Taiwanese fishing boats traded water cannon fire with Japanese coast guard ships Tuesday after Taiwan for the first time ventured into the disputed waters.
(2) China entered its first aircraft carrier into service Tuesday, and although the ship won’t be ready for combat anytime soon, the move was in part meant as a show of national strength.
(3) Bookstores in Beijing are removing books by Japanese authors.

(4)The popular Wangfujing bookstore has pulled Chinese versions of Haruki Murakami’s bestseller 1Q84, as well as other Japanese authors’ titles

(5) Mass protests and riots this month caused the closure of Japanese manufacturing plants in China, with Chinese demonstrators trashing Hondas and other Japanese-made cars.

(6) But now, Chinese citizens are also taking their fury all the way to Cupertino, Calif.

(7) After maps on the newly released iPhone5 listed the islands as part of Japan’s Okinawa Prefecture, hundreds of thousands of outraged users on China’s microblogging network Weibo called for IPhone boycotts.

(8) Japanese airline JAL plans to cut six flights a day between China and Japan in October after 15,000 people have canceled hier flights.

(9) Some China-based travel agencies are canceling group tours to Japan.

(10)Cultural events in both countries designed to mark the 40th anniversary of China-Japan diplomatic ties have been called off.

In example (1) (2), Chinese declares its ownership of the Diaoyu islands by bringing first aircraft carrier into service, as a show of national strength. It also concurs with the American’s „The China Threat“ theory. China’s water cannon fire with Japanese coast guard ships indicates that it is China who escalates the Sino-Japan dispute. Also, Taiwan’s venture into the disputed waters suggests that the islands belong to Japan. According to example (1) (2), it seems to say China should be accused of interfering in the domestic affairs of Japanese sovereign.

In example (3) (4), China removes and pulls books by Japanese authors. It implies China is guilty and has a prejudice against Japan. In example (5), (6), (7), Chinese protests and riots caused the closure of Japanese manufacturing plants and trashed Japanese-made cars. Chinese citizens are also taking their fury all the way to Cupertino, Calif and boycotting iPhone5.In example (8)(9)(10),the flight cancelled because of Chinese . From the examples, it can be seen that the reporters focuses on Chinese reactions and listed anti-Japanese behaviors, while few efforts are made to describe the Japan attitude and reactions. By doing so, the reporters indicate that China should be responsible for the unrest in East Asia.

(ii) Verbal Process

We can see from the table that verbal processes take up the second highest percentage in the samples (35.06%). Verbal processes play a more important part in CDA because quotations are usually prevailing in media discourse. Verbal processes are attitudes and opinions. Analyzing the participants and processes in verbal processes can also help reveal the ideology embedded in the news reports. Here it should be pointed out that most verbal processes are speech reporting in news reports which is taken as discursive practice. When constructing discourse, speakers or writers will quote or report opinions to mark it objective or to support their viewpoints. Therefore, whose is quoted, or which part of the particular speech is quoted, is of significance. Therefore, in this section the focus is on process analysis.

Table 2 Verbal processes in the samples

Classification	sayer	process
China	China's assistant foreign minister	warning
		urge
	China’s microblogging network Weibo	called for
	Le Yucheng	made the comment
		expressed
		urged
		said
		called on
		added
	the assistant foreign minister	warning
		see
		said
	outraged users	called on
	Pan Xinyi ‘s Weibo	wrote
America	the Atlantic	reported
		wrote
	the AP	reports
		wrote
	The Washington Post’s Chico Harlan	reported
Japan	the Japan Times	said
Britain	Guardian	reports
		writes

As is displayed in table 2, the main sayers are from China and America. „said“ and „reported“ are frequently adopted to achieve a sense of neutrality and objectivity. However, if we take a close look at some verbal processes, a different picture is revealed. Let’s look at some examples.

(1) China’s assistant foreign minister on Friday urged Japan to seriously self-reflect to ensure bilateral ties get back on track, warning that continuous erroneous practices by Japan will see the relationship between it and China sink like the Titanic.

(2) Le Yucheng made the comment at a seminar organized by the Chinese People’s Institute of Foreign Affairs and the China Institute of International Studies to mark the 40th anniversary of the normalization of China-Japan relations.

(3) Stressing the auspicious occasion, Le expressed regret.

(4) China hopes the Japanese government will respect history, be responsible for bilateral ties and the peace and stability of East Asia, understand the situation clearly and conduct deep self-reflection, Le urged.

(5) China has previously sent patrol ships to the island chain, which is called the Senkaku in Japan and the Diaoyu in China, saying they wanted to deal a blow to Japan’s „swagger.“

(6) „The popular Wangfujing bookstore has pulled Chinese versions of Haruki Murakami’s bestseller 1Q84, as well as other Japanese authors’ titles, said the Japan Times.

(7) „We don’t sell Japanese books,“ said a shop clerk, adding, „I don’t know much about the reason, but perhaps it is because China-Japan relations are not good,“ the Guardian writes.

(8) After maps on the newly released iPhone5 listed the islands as part of Japan’s Okinawa Prefecture, hundreds of thousands of outraged users on China’s microblogging network Weibo called for iPhone boycotts, the Atlantic reported.

„Urge“, „Warn“, „call for“ in the examples shows the strong attitudes of the Chinese. It only quoted one report from Japan media. The reporters as bystanders comment this situation with ironic and indifferent air. It’s not difficult to find the western countries’ purpose. The readers are influenced to form the opinion that China and Japan both should be criticized for the unrest in Southeast Asia and Asians are not peace-loving people. There is a word in Chinese, „For the fight between shell and snipe, the fisherman takes the advantage“. Here the western countries play the role of fishermen.

4.2.3. Lexical classification

Lexical classification is an indispensable tool for critical analysis. And the choice of vocabulary is the main approach to realize classification. Let’s first look at the words referring to the islands in the two selected news reports:

(1) China has previously sent patrol ships to the island chain, which is called the Senkaku in Japan and the Diayu in China.

(2) Ever since the Japanese government bought an uninhabited, disputed chain of islands in the East China Sea, the tension between Japan and China over the islands has played out in ever more bizarre ways.

(3) More than 40 Taiwanese fishing boats traded water cannon fire with Japanese coast guard ships Tuesday after Taiwan for the first time ventured into the disputed waters.

Take notice of the appearance subsequence of these two words: Senkaku islands and Diaoyu islands. Senkaku always appears before Diaoyu. Example (3) obviously demonstrates that Chinese’s venture into the disputed waters is illegal. The reporter is apparently influencing readers by arranging the words’ appearance subsequence. Readers can be affected by the first sight of the words. Undoubtedly, the reporter achieves his or her purpose through this usage.

Then there are the title and the sub-headlines of the report:

(1) Weird examples of tensions over the Japanese/Chinese islands

(2) A giant water-gun fight

(3) Fewer Japanese books

(4) A new aircraft carrier

(5) Boycotting IPhones

(6) Cancelled vacations

The word „weiry“ in sub-headline (1) is used to blame Japanese and Chinese. While other sub-headlines refer to what is happening in China, such as cancelling vacation, boycotting IPhones, eliminating Japanese books. Even the boycotting of IPhones is also regarded as China’s misdeed. From these titles, it can be assumed that it is China who should take the responsibility of Sino-Japan tension.

4.2.4. Modality

Modality is important in reflecting speakers’ attitude towards, or opinion about the propositional truth of sentence. The system of modality, which can be realized by such different devices as modal auxiliaries, modal adjectives and adverbs, accounts for the interpersonal aspects of view.

(1) Continuous erroneous practices by Japan will see the relationship between it and China sink like the Titanic.

(2) Japan should abandon the idea that it can occupy the Diaoyu Islands and that sending a few envoys to China to explain the issue will be the end of it.

(3) China hopes the Japanese government will respect history.

(4) Japan should have the political courage to take effective measures to defuse the Diaoyu Islands issue and stop any acts that undermine China’s territorial sovereignty so that the bilateral ties can return to healthy development.

(5) The key is that Japan should follow the path of peaceful development and prevent right-wing forces from misleading the country, and accept rather than contain China’s development

(6) China has previously sent patrol ships to the island chain, which is called the Senkaku in Japan and the Diaoyu in China, saying they wanted to deal a blow to Japan’s „swagger.“

(7) China entered its first aircraft carrier into service Tuesday, and although the ship won’t be ready for combat anytime soon, the move was in part meant as a show of national strength.

(8) Writing in the China Daily newspaper, retired rear admiral Yang Yi hinted that the new vessel might make certain „forces“ think twice about messing with China.

(9) When China has a more balanced and powerful navy, the regional situation will be more stable as various forces that threaten regional peace will no longer dare to act rashly.

In example(1), (2), (3),(4),(5), modal auxiliary verbs, such as will, should, might are adopted to express the Chinese own degree of affinity with a proposition. In example (7), (8),(9), the reporters quoted the words from Chinese to penetrate his own ideas that china use military force to seize the island, which coincides with the „China threat“ theory. By adopting such an ironic way to describe China, the reporter contributes faults to China.

To sum up, modality is a major dimension of discourse and more pervasive than if has traditionally been taken to be. It reflects the speaker’s attitudes and gives us clue to the main idea of the text.

5. Conclusion

Thanks to the previous studies, by virtue of Halliday’s systemic-functional grammar and Fairclough’s three-dimensional model of discourse analysis, the critical analysis of five political news reports has been carried out. It comes to the conclusion that political news reports can never be viewed as neutral, value-free. The author exposes the underlying ideology concealed in the news reports: linguistic expressions have their theoretical and practical implications.

Theoretically, the present study proves CDA an effective and feasible approach to revealing the embedded ideology in a language; practically, it is meaningful for pedagogy: to cultivate critical language awareness among English leaners, to become discerning readers of western media, and to allow teachers to launch an educational project in critical reading. This thesis, however, has its the following three limitations: first, the validity and significance are reduced to some degree because of its limited analyzed materials: China Daily and The Washington Post; Concentrations on only some linguistic features inevitably leads to a study far from comprehensive; The fact that everyone, including the authors, is confined to his /her own social-cultural context cannot ensure that this study is absolutely objective and impartial.

In spite of all these dis-merits, this paper shed some light on the ideological differences on the news report of boat collision reported respectively by China Daily and The Washington Post, though a fuller and clearer picture of the differences is likely to be achieved by focusing on two other aspects: Interpersonal and textual meaning, which might be an expected more critical analysis in the days to come.

 

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